Spinal Pathologies in Obstetric Anesthesia: Neuraxial Risk Assessment and Decision-Making

Phantom limb pain is a phenomenon in which pain continues to be experienced in a limb that is no longer present. No clear first-line treatment regimen has been identified for this patient population. Many pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic treatments have been used to treat patients with phantom limb pain. Pharmacologic treatments that are frequently used include opioids, antidepressants (tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline), anticonvulsants, gabapentin and pregabalin. Nonpharmacologic treatments include transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation therapy, deep brain stimulation, spinal cord stimulation, acupuncture, sympathetic blockade, and mirror therapies.